Cultural Studies in Practice

 This blog is written as response to the thinking activity on the topic of Feminist and Marxist criticism, given by Dilip Darad sir at the Department of English, MKBU.

Introduction:

Cultural Studies, derived from the Latin word 'Colere,' meaning 'to cultivate,' 'to honor,' or 'to protect,' encompasses the generation of meanings and ideas valid within a culture. It introduces the concept that certain components of culture gain significance over others, often dictated by the elite class, leading to the rejection of non-elite views. As Patrick Brantlinger notes, Cultural Studies is not a rigidly coherent movement but a loosely coherent group of tendencies, issues, and questions that navigate the gaps within culture. Similar to Derrida's deconstruction theory, Cultural Studies examines mass culture, reflecting the influence of various elements such as Marxism, Poststructuralism, Postmodernism, feminism, Gender Studies, Anthropology, Sociology, race and ethnic studies, film theory, urban studies, public policy, culture studies, and postcolonial studies. These elements converge on the socio-cultural forces shaping communities and causing division and alienation.

In the realm of literary analysis, Cultural Studies can be applied through diverse theoretical frameworks. This interdisciplinary field explores how culture shapes and is shaped by social, political, economic, and historical factors. Approaches such as Historical Context, Social Class Analysis, Gender Studies, Race and Ethnicity Studies, Postcolonial Theory, Cultural Identity and Hybridity, Reader Response Theory, Cultural Materialism, Language and Discourse Analysis, and Globalisation Studies allow scholars to conduct nuanced analyses of literary works. It goes beyond examining plot and characters, revealing deeper insights into the cultural, social, and political dimensions of the text. These approaches are not mutually exclusive, and a combination of them offers a comprehensive understanding of the cultural implications embedded in literary works.

The "Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature" discusses various goals of Cultural Studies. It transcends the confines of specific disciplines like literary criticism or history, engages politically, denies the separation of 'high' and 'low' or elite and popular culture, and analyzes not only the cultural work but also the means of production. Additionally, it identifies five types of Cultural Studies, including British Cultural Materialism, New Historicism, American Multiculturalism, Postmodernism & Popular Culture, and Postcolonial Studies. Applying these approaches to literary works allows for a deeper exploration of the cultural context and its multifaceted implications within the narrative.

Marginalization of Characters in Hamlet 

Cultural critics often assume "oppositional" roles in relation to power structures, engaging with various aspects that significantly impact people's daily lives. In William Shakespeare's "Hamlet," the exploration of power structures becomes evident, particularly through the marginalized characters of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Interestingly, their names, derived from Dutch-German origins, with Rosencrantz meaning "Garland of Roses" and Guildenstern meaning "Golden Star," paradoxically oppose their actual roles in the narrative.

When Claudius orchestrates Hamlet's journey to England, Rosencrantz delivers a noteworthy speech on the role and power of kinship. Despite this emphasis on power dynamics, their significance is overshadowed in the broader context of the play, leading to their marginalization. Former students of Hamlet from Wittenberg, they return to Denmark at Claudius's behest, attempting to gather information for the king. However, their failure to comprehend Hamlet's inner thoughts and ambitions leads to their ultimate marginalization and tragic fate in England.

Hamlet's lack of guilt over their deaths can be attributed to the power play within the narrative. Hamlet distinguishes himself from King Claudius, highlighting the inconsequential role of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern as pawns in this power struggle. Despite their initial good intentions toward Hamlet, their primary allegiance was to please the powerful king, disappointing Hamlet in the process.

In the context of cultural studies, the play delves into more than just the portrayal of power dynamics involving princes and princesses. Tom Stoppard's "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead" resurrects these almost forgotten characters, transforming them into archetypal human beings caught in the existential questions of the 20th or 21st century. The play questions the meaninglessness of existence, drawing parallels to individuals caught in the corporate world, akin to pawns on a chessboard. Stoppard's interpretation further highlights the adaptability of cultural themes across different time periods and cultures, reinforcing the insignificance of these characters in the larger scheme of power struggles.

In essence, the exploration of power dynamics and the marginalization of characters like Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in both Shakespeare's original work and Stoppard's reinterpretation offers a nuanced perspective on the broader cultural implications embedded in these narratives. The almost dead characters of Shakespeare find new life in the 20th-century portrayal, making them relatable to contemporary audiences grappling with their own existential questions.

Implied Culture versus Historical Facts: Reading “To His Coy Mistress" 

Andrew Marvell's poem "To His Coy Mistress" provides a glimpse into the complex character of the speaker, revealing his extensive knowledge of classic Greek and Roman literature, medieval European love poetry conventions, and Biblical passages. The speaker demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of various literary traditions and philosophical concepts, employing them in a manner that suggests a playful, possibly mocking tone. His education and erudition are evident in the seamless flow of thoughts and images that reflect his cultural background.

However, when viewed through the lens of cultural studies, a noticeable gap emerges in the speaker's considerations. The poem's narrative lacks an acknowledgment of pressing issues such as poverty and the harsh realities faced by a significant portion of the European population during the late seventeenth century. The prevalence of diseases, notably the devastating impact of the Black Death that plagued London in the mid-1600s, is conspicuously absent from his reflections.

In this historical context, the poem, written in 1681, coincided with the later stages of the Great Plague of London. The epidemic, lasting from July to October, resulted in the death of approximately 68,000 people, with the total death toll reaching 75,000. A vivid account of this period can be found in Daniel Defoe's "Journal of the Plague Year" (1722). Despite the harsh realities of the time, the speaker's focus remains on themes of wealth, leisure, and sexual activity, seemingly overlooking the profound challenges faced by society.

In essence, the speaker appears to deliberately ignore the darker aspects of the reality surrounding him, opting instead for a fantastical world of wealth and pleasure. This selective narrative may serve as a form of escapism, allowing him to avoid confronting the harsh realities of the world. The poem's emphasis on the "creamy layer" of life suggests a preoccupation with affluent families or cultures, further underscoring the speaker's detachment from the broader societal challenges of his time.

From Paradise Lost to Frank-N-Furter: Frankenstein in Popular culture.

Mary Shelley's enduring novel, "Frankenstein," has permeated various facets of our culture, extending beyond the confines of books to encompass a myriad of expressions—visual art, stories, plays, movies, TV shows, advertisements, clothing, jewelry, toys, and even everyday items like mugs and keychains. Its influence extends into the realms of games, Halloween costumes, comics, jokes, cartoons, and academic studies, as well as fan clubs and websites dedicated to exploring its depths. The novel has even left its mark on food items, with cereals like "Frankenberry" and "Count Chocula" drawing inspiration from Shelley's creation. In essence, the pervasive presence of "Frankenstein" teaches us not to underestimate the profound impact of youth culture.

When approached through the lens of Cultural Studies, "Frankenstein" emerges as a work deeply embedded in prevailing cultural discourse. Originating during a period of significant societal changes, the novel challenged prevailing ideas and continues to resonate in today's consumer culture. However, there is a question as to whether its initial revolutionary spirit and critiques of science, philosophy, politics, and gender have been overshadowed by its widespread popularity.

As George Levine suggests, "Frankenstein" has evolved into a symbol, particularly in a culture preoccupied with technology and identity. References to "Frankenstein" abound, from describing someone as a "created monster" in the news to articles warning about genetically modified foods, test-tube babies, and cloning.

The Creature in "Frankenstein" can be seen as somewhat proletarian, embodying both innocence and a capacity for cold-blooded violence. Mary Shelley's portrayal of the Creature reflects her mixed feelings about radical ideas, embodying a political and moral puzzle. The creature, defying the established order, challenges societal norms but is met with fear and destruction.

Examining "Frankenstein" in the context of different "races," the Creature's yellow skin aligns with a historical tradition of portraying the 'Other' as something to be feared and hated. Victor, the Creature's creator, can be interpreted as a guilty slave master in Shelley's exploration of societal issues.

In the contemporary world of genetic engineering, biotechnology, and cloning, "Frankenstein" remains more relevant than ever. Mary Shelley's work, influenced by the Romantic period's shift in science towards biology, warned against the dangers of unchecked scientific progress. Today, with advancements in fertility science, genetic engineering, and life-prolonging technologies, the novel's cautionary tale resonates anew.

In essence, "Frankenstein" serves as a reflective mirror, addressing critical societal issues and retaining its relevance as science continues to advance, posing new ethical and existential questions. The concept of "Frankenphemes," as introduced by Timothy Morton, encapsulates the proliferation of elements derived from "Frankenstein" in various cultural mediums. The novel's presence is evident in countless retellings, parodies, and adaptations across fiction, drama, film, and television, solidifying its enduring impact on world cultures.

Queer Theory and Ecocriticism

 This blog is written as response to the thinking activity on the topic of Feminist and Marxist criticism, given by Pro. Dilip Barad sir at the Department of English, MKBU.

Queer theory 

Queer theory is a field that explores different forms of non-normative sexual identities and behaviors, including homosexuality, cross-dressing, bisexuality, and transsexuality. Originally, the term "queer" was used in a derogatory way to criticize same-sex love, but in the early 1990s, the LGBTQ+ community embraced it for self-identification and scholarly exploration.

Lesbian and gay studies emerged as liberation movements in the late 1960s and 1970s, advocating for equal rights during a period of social upheaval. Initially, these movements were somewhat separate, but over time, there has been a recognition of shared history and goals. In the 1970s, researchers focused on uncovering the works of nonheterosexual writers throughout history.

In the 1980s and 1990s, queer theorists challenged the idea of a fixed gay or lesbian identity. Drawing from poststructuralist thinkers like Derrida and Foucault, they questioned binary oppositions like male/female and heterosexual/homosexual. Adrienne Rich introduced the concept of a "lesbian continuum" to highlight the diverse spectrum of female relationships beyond just physical intimacy.

Later, theorists like Eve Sedgwick and Judith Butler critiqued the normativity of heterosexuality and deconstructed the assumption of stable sexual identities. They argued that categories like heterosexual and homosexual are cultural constructs rather than universal, transhistorical types. Michel Foucault's work, especially in "History of Sexuality," influenced this perspective.

Judith Butler, in "Gender Trouble," proposed the idea that gender and sexuality are performative, meaning cultural discourse shapes these categories and the individual then enacts them. Queer reading became a way to challenge established cultural boundaries.

Debates within queer theory include the tension between radical constructionism, which sees identities as linguistic products specific to a culture, and the need to affirm enduring human identities for political action. Many journals, conferences, and academic programs are now dedicated to queer theory and LGBTQ+ studies.

Various anthologies and books cover queer theory, including works by Karla Jay, Joanne Glasgow, Diana Fuss, and others. The field continues to grow with contributions from scholars exploring the intersections of race, class, and gender in the construction of identities.

Dynamics of Lesbian and Gay Literary Criticism

Lesbian and gay literary theory emerged prominently in the 1990s as a distinct academic field. Unlike earlier literary theory works, which largely overlooked lesbian and gay studies, this field gained recognition with dedicated sections in bookstores, academic programs, and courses like 'Sexual Dissidence and Cultural Change' at the University of Sussex.

This interdisciplinary field, influenced mainly by cultural studies, goes beyond exclusive interest for gays and lesbians. It shares similarities with feminist criticism in its social and political aims, resisting homophobia, heterosexism, and challenging the privileging of heterosexual norms.

However, lesbian and gay criticism is not a monolithic entity. Two main strands within lesbian theory include lesbian feminism and libertarian lesbianism. Lesbian feminism, rooted in the 1980s feminist context, emphasizes the intersection of lesbianism with feminist ideals. It critiques mainstream feminism for neglecting issues of race, class, and sexual orientation, introducing the concept of the "lesbian continuum" to highlight a broad spectrum of woman-identified experiences.

In the 1990s, lesbian criticism evolved within the framework of "queer theory," aligning with the interests of gay men and rejecting fixed categories. Queer theory challenges traditional binary oppositions, especially the heterosexual/homosexual dichotomy. Drawing on post-structuralist ideas, it questions the stability of identity categories, critiquing the notion of fixed essences.

Significantly, queer theory opposes essentialism, suggesting that sexual identity is not a stable and inherent characteristic but rather a performative construct shaped by social and cultural influences. This approach has both political and literary implications, encouraging a reevaluation of traditional realism in literature and favoring texts that subvert conventional structures.

The field of lesbian and gay criticism continues to evolve with new perspectives and critiques. Its rejection of essentialism and embrace of anti-realist elements in literature are notable features. Ultimately, lesbian and gay criticism seeks to bring visibility to diverse sexual orientations, challenge societal norms, and contribute to a more inclusive understanding of literature and culture.

What the Lesbian/gay critics do:

• Identify influential LGBTQ+ writers, especially from the twentieth century.

• Identify and discuss explicit LGBTQ+ moments in mainstream literature, avoiding vague interpretations.

• Use metaphors to depict LGBTQ+ experiences as moments of crossing boundaries, reflecting conscious resistance.

• Expose homophobia in mainstream literature, criticizing omissions and biases in discussing LGBTQ+ aspects.

• Bring attention to previously unnoticed homosexual elements in mainstream works, like the homoerotic tenderness in First World War poetry.

• Focus on forgotten literary genres shaping gender ideals, such as nineteenth-century adventure stories with a British 'Empire' setting.

With the example of film “Fire”(1996)

"Fire," a film directed by Deepa Mehta, stands out as a groundbreaking work in Indian cinema for its exploration of LGBTQ+ themes. Mehta, considered a trailblazer in the Indian context, contributes significantly to the canon of creators addressing these themes in a country where such discussions have been traditionally limited.

Within the narrative of "Fire," the relationship between Radha and Sita, two sisters-in-law, serves as the focal point for exploring same-sex experiences within a conservative Indian society. Mehta's choice to highlight these experiences underscores a deliberate effort to shed light on often marginalized narratives, challenging the prevalent norms of storytelling centered around heterosexual relationships.

Metaphorically, "Fire" reflects broader societal struggles faced by LGBTQ+ individuals. Radha and Sita's story becomes a metaphor for the conscious resistance against established norms and the challenges of self-identification within a society that may not readily accept diverse sexual orientations.

However, the film itself faced significant backlash in India, revealing the deep-seated homophobia within mainstream cinema and society. The controversy surrounding "Fire" provides a lens through which to critique the reception of LGBTQ+ themes in Indian cinema and underscores the film's role in challenging societal biases.

"Fire" courageously foregrounds homosexual aspects within its narrative, explicitly depicting the relationship between Radha and Sita. This bold approach positions the film as a noteworthy cinematic endeavour that consciously brings to the forefront the realities of LGBTQ+ relationships within the broader landscape of Indian cinema.

 "Fire" can be seen as a genre-defying piece within Bollywood, challenging conventional storytelling norms. Mehta's film disrupts established ideas about femininity, marriage, and sexuality in Indian cinema, contributing to a more inclusive representation and understanding of diverse sexual orientations.

 "Fire" and its critical analysis exemplify the multifaceted efforts to establish LGBTQ+ narratives and creators within the canon of Indian cinema, marking a significant step toward fostering inclusivity and breaking away from traditional storytelling norms.

Ecocriticism

Ecocriticism emerged in the late 1970s by combining "criticism" with a shortened form of "ecology." It explores the connections between literature and the environment, considering the impact of human activities on nature. The focus is on representations of the natural world in literature.

From early biblical accounts to pastoral themes in Greek and Roman literature, nature has been a recurring theme. In the 18th century, Gilbert White's "Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" initiated nature writing in England, while in America, William Bertram's "Travels through the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida" continued this trend. In the 20th century, influential books like Aldo Leopold's "A Sand County Almanac" and Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" drew attention to environmental degradation. As ecological concerns grew, ecocriticism emerged in the 1990s, becoming a recognized field of literary study.

Ecocritics analyze literature through various perspectives, addressing issues such as anthropocentrism (human-centered views) and the interconnectedness of human culture and nature. They encourage "green reading" across literary genres, including nature writing by authors like Thomas Hardy and Mark Twain. Ecofeminism examines how male-authored literature portrays women's roles in natural fantasies. There's also a growing interest in non-Western cultures, such as Native American oral traditions, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all living things.

While some argue for a shift to ecocentric religions, others believe reform lies in recognizing human responsibility and stewardship. Despite differences, ecocritics agree that literature, fueled by imagination and emotion, plays a crucial role in complementing scientific knowledge to address ecological challenges.

Ecocriticism or green studies?

 Ecocriticism, also known as green studies, is essentially the examination of the relationship between literature and the natural environment. Coined in the late 1970s, the terms "ecocriticism" and "green studies" are used interchangeably to describe this critical approach that gained prominence in the late 1980s in the USA and the early 1990s in the UK.

In the USA, Cheryll Glotfelty is recognized as a key figure, co-editing "The Ecocriticism Reader" in 1996 and co-founding the Association for the Study of Literature and Environment (ASLE) in 1992. This signaled the emergence of ecocriticism as an academic movement, with its own journal, Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment (ISLE), starting in 1993.

The term "ecocriticism" originated in the late 1970s during meetings of the Western Literature Association, tracing back to William Rueckert's 1978 essay. Cheryll Glotfelty later revived and popularized it at the 1989 WLA conference. In the USA, ecocriticism draws inspiration from transcendentalist writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, and Henry David Thoreau, celebrating nature, life force, and wilderness in America.

In the UK the ecocriticism, or green studies, looks to British Romanticism of the 1790s. Jonathan Bate, author of "Romantic Ecology: Wordsworth and the Environmental Tradition," is a prominent figure in British ecocriticism. While the USA emphasizes celebration, the UK approach tends to be more cautionary, warning against environmental threats from various forces.Ecocriticism is more established in the USA, with ASLE and ISLE, while the UK is still developing its infrastructure. Both variants share the goal of exploring the intersection of literature and the environment but differ in emphasis and tone, with the American approach often celebratory and the British approach more cautionary. The existence of these national variants mirrors the distinctions seen in cultural materialism and new historicism.

Culture and nature

Ecocriticism challenges the prevailing notion in literary theory that everything is socially and linguistically constructed. Unlike many other theoretical frameworks, ecocritics assert that nature exists independently of human interpretation and isn't merely a cultural concept. This rejection of constructedness is a significant departure from the broader theoretical orthodoxy that views the external world as socially and linguistically constructed.

Ecocriticism questions the idea that everything, including nature, is textualized into discourse. Kate Soper, in her book "What is Nature?" dismisses the notion that language has a role in causing the hole in the ozone layer. The movement critiques the foundational belief in constructedness, which is a key aspect of literary theory.

However, it's crucial to note that ecocritics don't hold a naive, pre-theoretical view of nature. There have been intense debates within ecocriticism regarding the understanding of nature. For instance, American Wordsworth critic Alan Liu contends that calling something 'nature' and seeing it as 'simply given' can be a way of avoiding the politics that shaped it. Liu's position suggests that 'nature' might be an anthropomorphic construct created for specific purposes.

The debate on the constructedness of nature is evident in the confrontation between Liu and various ecocritics like Jonathan Bate, Karl Kroeber, and Terry Gifford. Liu's argument that 'there is no nature' has sparked discussions and stimulated the definition of ecocritical positions. The meaning of the word 'nature' is a significant point of contention in ecocriticism, echoing the debates found in other theoretical frameworks.

The social and linguistic constructedness of reality, also known as 'the problem of the real,' is a key issue that ecocriticism brings to the forefront. While attitudes toward nature may vary culturally, ecocritics emphasize the need to distinguish between figurative and literal truth. The movement prompts a clarification of thoughts on this issue.

Ecocriticism also raises questions about distinctions and their clarity. The distinction between nature and culture, though not always absolute and clear-cut, remains essential. The existence of intermediate states does not undermine fundamental distinctions. Ecocritics argue that recognizing the shades of grey doesn't negate the black-and-white difference between nature and culture.

The discussion extends to environmental areas, moving from 'the wilderness' to 'the domestic picturesque.' These areas represent a spectrum from predominantly 'pure' nature to predominantly 'culture.' Despite uncertainties about the positioning of specific elements, ecocritics maintain the importance of the fundamental distinction between nature and culture.

Ecocritics argue that even if nature writing often focuses on areas with a blend of culture and nature, it doesn't negate the existence of nature. The movement highlights the special function that wilderness areas serve for humanity, emphasizing the need to preserve such spaces, even as global warming and other anthropocentric problems impact every region on the planet.

Ultimately, ecocriticism encourages a broadened perspective in literary and critical studies, urging scholars to consider ecological concerns alongside traditional issues of gender, race, and class. The movement suggests that addressing environmental issues is a prerequisite for addressing other social injustices.

What Ecocritics do

• Ecocritics re-examine classic literary works through an ecocentric lens, focusing on the portrayal of the natural world.

• They broaden the application of ecocentric concepts, utilizing them beyond nature, including ideas of growth, energy, balance, imbalance, symbiosis, mutuality, and sustainable resource use.

• Ecocritics emphasize canonical authors who prominently feature nature in their works, such as American transcendentalists, British Romantics, John Clare, Thomas Hardy, and early 20th-century Georgian poets.

• They expand literary-critical approaches by highlighting "factual" writing, particularly reflective topographical pieces like essays, travel narratives, memoirs, and regional literature.

• Ecocritics move away from social constructivism and linguistic determinism prevalent in dominant literary theories, shifting focus to ecocentric values like keen observation, collective ethical responsibility, and acknowledging the significance of the external world.

Example of ecocriticism through poem 'In Time of "The Breaking of Nations."

I 

Only a man harrowing clods 

In a slow silent walk 

With an old horse that stumbles and nods 

Half asleep as they stalk. 

II 

Only thin smoke without flame 

From the heaps of couch-grass; 

Yet this will go onward the same 

Though Dynasties pass. 

III 

Yonder a maid and her wight 

Come whispering by: 

War's annals will cloud into night

Ere their story die. 

In 1915, amid the tumult of the Great War, Thomas Hardy penned the poignant poem 'In Time of "The Breaking of Nations."' The verses grapple with the shattering of civilizations and the desperate quest for enduring elements amidst the chaos. Hardy's chosen symbol of permanence is the humble ploughman, a figure engaged in low-tech agriculture—a man harrowing clods in a slow, silent walk with an old horse. However, it's crucial to note that while the poem was transcribed in 1915, the inspiration for the timeless ploughman dates back to Hardy's observation in 1870.

From an ecological standpoint, Hardy's personal past becomes a metaphorical landscape where the seed of an idea is planted, matures, and is eventually recycled to meet a future need. The gestation of the poem mirrors the patient processes of growth and cultivation depicted within it. The poet's autobiographical reflections reveal that the ploughman sighting occurred during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, a day marked by the bloody battle of Gravelotte. Despite the myriad changes over the intervening years, Hardy clung to the belief in the permanence and timelessness of the natural world.

The poem's narrative unfolds as the leisured speaker/observer stands between two ecological areas: the rectory garden symbolizing horticulture, and the valley of arable land representing agriculture. The couple beyond the garden—maid and wight—exemplify a slow, silent, and harmonious existence. However, the negative image of thin smoke without flame, emanating from burning grass heaps, disrupts the vision of united, productive harmony. This burning symbolizes the destructive human activity that threatens the symbiosis between agriculture and horticulture, a metaphor for the entropic carnage of war.

In seeking solace during wartime, the poet turns not to Tennyson's verses but to the world around him, finding comfort in the figure of the ploughman. From a contemporary perspective, the confidence restored by contemplating this 'timeless' figure may seem overly optimistic. Hardy's emblem of immutability becomes an emblem of fragility in our era, highlighting the precariousness of the ecological balance.

Characteristics of this ecocentric reading include an awareness of the poem's growth processes, diverse materials contributing to its development, identification of explicitly ecological content, retroactive irony, and an eclectic approach. Ecocriticism, as embodied in this analysis, is a diverse and open biosphere, echoing Walt Whitman's proclamation: 'I am large, I contain multitudes.'

Feminist criticism and Marxist criticism

This blog is written as response to the thinking activity on the topic of Feminist and Marxist criticism, given by Pro. Dilip Barad sir at the Department of English, MKBU.

Feminist criticism

Feminist criticism as a literary approach has been seen since  the late 1960s, creating a significant milestone in the ongoing struggle for women's recognition and rights. The foundations were laid by pioneers such as Mary Wollstonecraft in the late 18th century, with her work, "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792). However, it wasn't until the 1960s that feminist criticism gained momentum as a concerted approach to literature. Visionaries like Virginia Woolf, through works like "A Room of One’s Own" (1929), contributed to the groundwork for a critical examination of women's roles and the cultural, economic, and educational constraints within a patriarchal society.

At its core, feminist criticism contends that Western civilization is fundamentally patriarchal, dominating women in various cultural domains. Women are often defined negatively in reference to men, perpetuating societal norms that hinder their recognition and rights. This ideology is not just external; women are conditioned to internalize patriarchal beliefs, contributing to their own subordination. Feminist critics scrutinize traditional literature, revealing a pervasive male bias. Male protagonists dominate, while female characters are marginalized. This critique extends beyond character representation to challenge the broader gender assumptions embedded in literary works.

Feminist criticism encompasses a spectrum of theories, including psychoanalytic, Marxist, and poststructuralist perspectives. The movement is characterized by vibrant debates and varied critical vantage points. This diversity reflects the complexity of addressing gender issues within literature. The overarching goal of feminist criticism is to reconstitute literature, offering a more balanced reflection of female experiences. This involves identifying and challenging stereotypes while fostering alternative and empowering representations of women in literature.

A notable development within feminist criticism is gynocriticism, which focuses on developing a female-centric framework for analyzing works by women. This approach seeks to highlight distinctively feminine subject matters and experiences, challenging established literary norms. Feminist critics have actively sought to expand and reorder the literary canon. Overlooked female authors, including Anne Finch, George Sand, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, have been elevated, challenging the gender biases entrenched in literary history

In more recent years, some feminist critics have turned to poststructuralist positions, challenging even the foundational concepts of feminism. Figures like Judith Butler argue against fixed feminine identities, emphasizing the social and cultural construction of gender.

Feminist studies have burgeoned in volume and influence. Women's literature and feminist criticism have become integral to academic programs, challenging scholars and readers alike to confront and rectify historical gender imbalances in literature.feminist criticism has evolved into a multifaceted and influential approach to literature, sparking crucial dialogues about gender representation, societal norms, and the power dynamics embedded in literary works. As the movement continues to adapt to new theoretical landscapes and challenges, its impact on literary history, criticism, and academic instruction remains profound, urging a continual reevaluation of the stories we tell and the voices we amplify in the literary realm.

Feminist Critique of Language

The debate over whether language possesses an inherently feminine form remains a polarizing issue within feminism. Virginia Woolf, in her essay "A Room Of One's Own," contends that language is gendered, with male-authored prose being the norm. Woolf suggests that women attempting to adopt this "masculine" language faced challenges, leading some, like Jane Austen, to forge their own, more natural linguistic path.

Dale Spender expands on this notion in "Man Made Language" (1981), arguing that language reflects patriarchal dominance. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, however, challenge this view, proposing a more neutral stance in "Sexual Linguistics: Gender, Language, Sexuality."

French theorists introduce the concept of "écriture féminine," associated with feminine expression. Hélène Cixous presents it as a language of liberation, defying traditional structures. This idea, while inspiring, raises questions about essentialism and imposes a predetermined notion of female identity.

Julia Kristeva, in distinguishing the symbolic and semiotic aspects of language, aligns the latter with a more liberated, fluid form. However, this view has its critics, as it implies an essentialized female world divorced from social and cultural conditioning.

The language debate within feminist criticism thus unfolds as a nuanced exploration, delving into issues of power, representation, and the potential for alternative linguistic expressions.

Feminist Criticism and Psychoanalysis

Feminism's engagement with psychoanalysis initiates with Kate Millett's "Sexual Politics," condemning Freud as a source of patriarchal attitudes. Juliet Mitchell defends Freud, emphasizing the distinction between sex and gender, asserting that Freud's insights reveal the constructed nature of femininity. Jacqueline Rose extends this defense to Lacan, highlighting the symbolic and semiotic aspects of language. Rose combines feminism, psychoanalysis, and politics, advocating for a cultural construct of sexual identity. This complex stance finds support in British and French feminist circles but encounters skepticism from some American feminists.

The 1990s witnessed a shift toward recognizing the culturally-specific nature of psychoanalysis, challenging its universal validity. The feminist dialogue with psychoanalysis reflects an evolution from initial dismissal to a nuanced exploration of its potential to challenge established norms and interpretations.

What feminist critics do 

Here are some points that reflect the insight through which the feminist critics do the criticism of any works.

1. Rethink the canon, aiming at the rediscovery of texts written by women. 

2. Revalue women's experience. 

3. Examine representations of women in literature by men and women. 

4. Challenge representations of women as 'Other', as 'lack', as part of 'nature'. 

5. Examine power relations which are obtained in texts and in life, with a view to breaking them down, seeing reading as a political act, and showing the extent of patriarchy. 

6. Recognise the role of language in making what is social and constructed seem transparent and 'natural'. 

7. Raise the question of whether men and women are 'essentially' different because of biology, or are socially constructed as different. 

8. Explore the question of whether there is a female language, an ecriture feminine, and whether this is also available to men. 

9. 'Re-read' psychoanalysis to further explore the issue of female and male identity. 

10. Question the popular notion of the death of the author, asking whether there are only 'subject positions ... constructed in discourse', or whether, on the contrary, the experience (e.g. of a black or lesbian writer) is central. 

11. Make clear the ideological base of supposedly 'neutral' or 'mainstream' literary interpretations. 

"An Introduction" by Kamala Das as an example of Feminist criticism 

"An Introduction" by Kamala Das presents a poignant exploration of identity, language, and societal expectations, reflecting several key points in feminist literary criticism.

Rethinking the Canon:

Kamala Das challenges the traditional canon by providing a voice to women's experiences, especially those from marginalized backgrounds. Her narrative disrupts the conventional literary norms dominated by male perspectives.

Revaluing Women's Experience:

“My womanliness. Dress in sarees, be girl

Be wife, they said. Be embroiderer, be cook,

Be a quarreller with servants. Fit in. Oh,

Belong, cried the categorizers. Don't sit

On walls or peep in through our lace-draped windows.

Be Amy, or be Kamala.”

The poem delves into Kamala Das's personal experiences, exposing the societal pressures that stifle women's individuality. It emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing women's diverse experiences beyond stereotypical roles.

Examining Representations of Women:

The poem scrutinizes societal expectations and stereotypes imposed on women. It critiques the prescribed roles of being a daughter, wife, or mother and questions the limitations these roles impose on women's autonomy.

Challenging Representations of Women as 'Other':

Kamala Das challenges the notion of women as the 'Other.' The poem rejects the idea of women being defined in relation to men and asserts the universality of human experiences shared by both genders.

Examining Power Relations:

 “Why not leave

Me alone, critics, friends, visiting cousins,

Every one of you? Why not let me speak in

Any language I like? The language I speak,

Becomes mine, its distortions, its queernesses

All mine, mine alone.”

The poem implicitly addresses power imbalances by exposing the impact of societal expectations on women's lives. It invites readers to critically analyze and challenge the patriarchal structures that constrain women.

Role of Language:

“I amIndian, very brown, born inMalabar,

I speak three languages, write in

Two, dream in one.”

Kamala Das addresses the role of language in constructing social norms. Her defiance of language prescriptions underscores the power dynamics embedded in linguistic conventions and challenges the notion that English is a limiting factor for self-expression.

Marxist literary theory

Marxist literary theory, based on the ideas of Karl Marx, offers a unique perspective on how society and literature interact. According to this approach, the way societies produce and distribute goods, known as material production, plays a pivotal role in shaping human history, social structures, and ways of thinking. Essentially, economic factors are considered the driving force behind social change. One of the central tenets of Marxism is the concept of class struggle. It posits that changes in economic structures lead to the emergence of dominant and subordinate classes, sparking struggles for power, resources, and social standing. This dynamic is seen as a constant force shaping societies throughout history.

Ideology, encompassing beliefs, values, and thought processes, is another key element in Marxist theory. Human consciousness, according to Marxists, is significantly influenced by ideology. Importantly, the dominant ideology in a given era tends to align with the interests of the ruling class, serving to legitimize and perpetuate their dominance.

Marxism introduces the metaphor of a superstructure built upon an economic base to explain the relationship between economic structures and cultural, ideological, and social phenomena. The economic base, representing the means of production, influences and shapes the superstructure, which includes elements like ideology, culture, and institutions. In capitalist societies, Marxist critics focus on the bourgeoisie, the owning class, and argue that the prevailing ideology often supports their interests. This ideology, according to Marxists, functions to mask the true nature of societal arrangements, presenting them in a way that benefits the ruling class.

When applied to literature, Marxist criticism looks at literary works as products of their historical and economic context. Instead of considering them as timeless or universally artistic, Marxists analyze literature as influenced by specific economic and ideological conditions of the time. Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony is integral to Marxist literary theory. Hegemony involves the ruling class exerting influence not just through force but by making their worldview so pervasive that the subordinate classes unwittingly accept it, contributing to their own oppression.

The Marxist literary theory seeks to uncover the economic and ideological forces shaping both society and literature. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of material conditions and cultural expressions, providing a lens through which literature is viewed as both a reflection and a product of the socio-economic context in which it is created.

Beginnings and Basics of Marxism:

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, founders of Marxism, originated from Germany. Marx, son of a lawyer, faced political exile, living in poverty in Britain. Engels, a German sociologist, worked in Manchester. Their economic theories, termed 'Communism,' advocate state ownership of industry. The Communist Manifesto (1848) introduced this ideology, aiming for a classless society with common ownership. Marxism, rooted in materialism, rejects assumptions beyond the natural world. History, viewed as a result of class struggle, emphasizes socio-economic contexts, especially in industrial capitalism, leading to exploitation and alienation. Influenced by Hegel, the French Revolution, and socialist thinking, Marxism posits a society with material means of production, distribution, and exchange under common ownership.

Marxist Literary Criticism - General:

Marxist literary criticism, although lacking a comprehensive theory from Marx and Engels, asserts that an author's social class and prevailing ideology significantly shape their work. While Marx and Engels valued 'great' art, Marxist criticism contends that writers, even unconsciously, are products of their social contexts. Eagleton highlights language's role in reflecting and constituting political states. Belsey argues that 'realist' novels validate existing social structures, discouraging critical scrutiny. Despite the autonomy of art, Marxist critics stress the impact of socio-economic factors on content and form.

'Leninist' Marxist Criticism:

In the 1920s, Soviet Marxist views on literature were initially experimental but turned strict in the 1930s. Lenin's stance, presented at the 1934 Soviet Writers' Congress, declared literature as a tool of the party, necessitating explicit political commitment. This 'Vulgar Marxism' assumed a direct cause-effect link between literature and economics. Christopher Caudwell's work exemplifies this rigid criticism, correlating an author's vocabulary with their social class and economic stance.

'Engelsian' Marxist Criticism:

'Engelsian' Marxist criticism, thriving in exile or underground, embraced ideas from the Russian Formalists. Formalists stressed close formal analysis, defamiliarization, and a distinction between story and plot. Exiles like Jakobson influenced structuralism, with attention to the autonomy of literary language. The Frankfurt School, integrating Freud and Marx, featured figures like Walter Benjamin and Bertolt Brecht, opposing Socialist Realism. Brecht's 'alienation effect' aimed to highlight the constructed nature of literary images.

The Present: The Influence of Althusser:

Louis Althusser's influence since the 1970s brought nuanced terms like overdeterminism, relative autonomy, ideology, and decentering. Overdeterminism rejects a simplistic base/superstructure model. Relative autonomy suggests art's independence from economic forces. Ideology, a central concept, sees culture, including literature, as a vehicle for societal values. Decentering rejects an overall unity between base and superstructure. Althusser's views highlight how state power operates through repressive and ideological structures. Hegemony, as per Gramsci, emphasizes the internalized social control maintained by ideological structures. Interpellation explains how individuals perceive themselves as free agents, contributing to the maintenance of societal norms.

Application of Marxist Criticism to Contemporary Indian Movie: "Article 15" (2019) 

Division between 'overt' and 'covert' content:

Overt Content: The film revolves around a young police officer investigating a heinous crime in rural India. It explicitly addresses issues of caste-based discrimination and social injustice.

Covert Content: A Marxist analysis might delve into the hidden structures of power and economic disparities that sustain the caste system. The crime investigated could be seen as a metaphor for the systemic exploitation of the lower castes.

Relating the context to the filmmaker's social-class status:

Considering Anubhav Sinha's background: The director, Anubhav Sinha, belongs to the film industry but doesn't come from the upper echelons of society. Marxist critics could explore how Sinha's social standing influences the film's perspective on caste dynamics and whether there are subtle biases or awareness present in the narrative.

Explaining the nature of a film genre in terms of the social period:

Analyzing the rise of socially relevant cinema: Marxist critics may argue that films like "Article 15" signify a shift in Bollywood towards addressing societal issues. The film genre could be seen as a response to the changing socio-political climate, with increased awareness and activism regarding caste discrimination.

Relating the film to the social assumptions of the time of consumption:

Considering the contemporary Indian audience: Cultural materialists might examine how "Article 15" engages with the prevailing discourse on caste and social justice during its release. If the film resonates with the audience's heightened sensitivity to these issues, it becomes a cultural product contributing to the ongoing discussions on inequality.

"Article 15," through a Marxist lens, could be interpreted as a cinematic critique of the entrenched caste system in India. The overt themes of discrimination and injustice could represent a deeper, covert narrative about the economic structures that perpetuate social hierarchies. Anubhav Sinha's background might bring a unique perspective to the film, influencing its portrayal of power dynamics. The film genre, in this case, serves as a medium to bring pressing social issues to the forefront, aligning with the changing consciousness of the audience and contributing to the larger discourse on social reform.