Feminist criticism and Marxist criticism

This blog is written as response to the thinking activity on the topic of Feminist and Marxist criticism, given by Pro. Dilip Barad sir at the Department of English, MKBU.

Feminist criticism

Feminist criticism as a literary approach has been seen since  the late 1960s, creating a significant milestone in the ongoing struggle for women's recognition and rights. The foundations were laid by pioneers such as Mary Wollstonecraft in the late 18th century, with her work, "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792). However, it wasn't until the 1960s that feminist criticism gained momentum as a concerted approach to literature. Visionaries like Virginia Woolf, through works like "A Room of One’s Own" (1929), contributed to the groundwork for a critical examination of women's roles and the cultural, economic, and educational constraints within a patriarchal society.

At its core, feminist criticism contends that Western civilization is fundamentally patriarchal, dominating women in various cultural domains. Women are often defined negatively in reference to men, perpetuating societal norms that hinder their recognition and rights. This ideology is not just external; women are conditioned to internalize patriarchal beliefs, contributing to their own subordination. Feminist critics scrutinize traditional literature, revealing a pervasive male bias. Male protagonists dominate, while female characters are marginalized. This critique extends beyond character representation to challenge the broader gender assumptions embedded in literary works.

Feminist criticism encompasses a spectrum of theories, including psychoanalytic, Marxist, and poststructuralist perspectives. The movement is characterized by vibrant debates and varied critical vantage points. This diversity reflects the complexity of addressing gender issues within literature. The overarching goal of feminist criticism is to reconstitute literature, offering a more balanced reflection of female experiences. This involves identifying and challenging stereotypes while fostering alternative and empowering representations of women in literature.

A notable development within feminist criticism is gynocriticism, which focuses on developing a female-centric framework for analyzing works by women. This approach seeks to highlight distinctively feminine subject matters and experiences, challenging established literary norms. Feminist critics have actively sought to expand and reorder the literary canon. Overlooked female authors, including Anne Finch, George Sand, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, have been elevated, challenging the gender biases entrenched in literary history

In more recent years, some feminist critics have turned to poststructuralist positions, challenging even the foundational concepts of feminism. Figures like Judith Butler argue against fixed feminine identities, emphasizing the social and cultural construction of gender.

Feminist studies have burgeoned in volume and influence. Women's literature and feminist criticism have become integral to academic programs, challenging scholars and readers alike to confront and rectify historical gender imbalances in literature.feminist criticism has evolved into a multifaceted and influential approach to literature, sparking crucial dialogues about gender representation, societal norms, and the power dynamics embedded in literary works. As the movement continues to adapt to new theoretical landscapes and challenges, its impact on literary history, criticism, and academic instruction remains profound, urging a continual reevaluation of the stories we tell and the voices we amplify in the literary realm.

Feminist Critique of Language

The debate over whether language possesses an inherently feminine form remains a polarizing issue within feminism. Virginia Woolf, in her essay "A Room Of One's Own," contends that language is gendered, with male-authored prose being the norm. Woolf suggests that women attempting to adopt this "masculine" language faced challenges, leading some, like Jane Austen, to forge their own, more natural linguistic path.

Dale Spender expands on this notion in "Man Made Language" (1981), arguing that language reflects patriarchal dominance. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, however, challenge this view, proposing a more neutral stance in "Sexual Linguistics: Gender, Language, Sexuality."

French theorists introduce the concept of "écriture féminine," associated with feminine expression. Hélène Cixous presents it as a language of liberation, defying traditional structures. This idea, while inspiring, raises questions about essentialism and imposes a predetermined notion of female identity.

Julia Kristeva, in distinguishing the symbolic and semiotic aspects of language, aligns the latter with a more liberated, fluid form. However, this view has its critics, as it implies an essentialized female world divorced from social and cultural conditioning.

The language debate within feminist criticism thus unfolds as a nuanced exploration, delving into issues of power, representation, and the potential for alternative linguistic expressions.

Feminist Criticism and Psychoanalysis

Feminism's engagement with psychoanalysis initiates with Kate Millett's "Sexual Politics," condemning Freud as a source of patriarchal attitudes. Juliet Mitchell defends Freud, emphasizing the distinction between sex and gender, asserting that Freud's insights reveal the constructed nature of femininity. Jacqueline Rose extends this defense to Lacan, highlighting the symbolic and semiotic aspects of language. Rose combines feminism, psychoanalysis, and politics, advocating for a cultural construct of sexual identity. This complex stance finds support in British and French feminist circles but encounters skepticism from some American feminists.

The 1990s witnessed a shift toward recognizing the culturally-specific nature of psychoanalysis, challenging its universal validity. The feminist dialogue with psychoanalysis reflects an evolution from initial dismissal to a nuanced exploration of its potential to challenge established norms and interpretations.

What feminist critics do 

Here are some points that reflect the insight through which the feminist critics do the criticism of any works.

1. Rethink the canon, aiming at the rediscovery of texts written by women. 

2. Revalue women's experience. 

3. Examine representations of women in literature by men and women. 

4. Challenge representations of women as 'Other', as 'lack', as part of 'nature'. 

5. Examine power relations which are obtained in texts and in life, with a view to breaking them down, seeing reading as a political act, and showing the extent of patriarchy. 

6. Recognise the role of language in making what is social and constructed seem transparent and 'natural'. 

7. Raise the question of whether men and women are 'essentially' different because of biology, or are socially constructed as different. 

8. Explore the question of whether there is a female language, an ecriture feminine, and whether this is also available to men. 

9. 'Re-read' psychoanalysis to further explore the issue of female and male identity. 

10. Question the popular notion of the death of the author, asking whether there are only 'subject positions ... constructed in discourse', or whether, on the contrary, the experience (e.g. of a black or lesbian writer) is central. 

11. Make clear the ideological base of supposedly 'neutral' or 'mainstream' literary interpretations. 

"An Introduction" by Kamala Das as an example of Feminist criticism 

"An Introduction" by Kamala Das presents a poignant exploration of identity, language, and societal expectations, reflecting several key points in feminist literary criticism.

Rethinking the Canon:

Kamala Das challenges the traditional canon by providing a voice to women's experiences, especially those from marginalized backgrounds. Her narrative disrupts the conventional literary norms dominated by male perspectives.

Revaluing Women's Experience:

“My womanliness. Dress in sarees, be girl

Be wife, they said. Be embroiderer, be cook,

Be a quarreller with servants. Fit in. Oh,

Belong, cried the categorizers. Don't sit

On walls or peep in through our lace-draped windows.

Be Amy, or be Kamala.”

The poem delves into Kamala Das's personal experiences, exposing the societal pressures that stifle women's individuality. It emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing women's diverse experiences beyond stereotypical roles.

Examining Representations of Women:

The poem scrutinizes societal expectations and stereotypes imposed on women. It critiques the prescribed roles of being a daughter, wife, or mother and questions the limitations these roles impose on women's autonomy.

Challenging Representations of Women as 'Other':

Kamala Das challenges the notion of women as the 'Other.' The poem rejects the idea of women being defined in relation to men and asserts the universality of human experiences shared by both genders.

Examining Power Relations:

 “Why not leave

Me alone, critics, friends, visiting cousins,

Every one of you? Why not let me speak in

Any language I like? The language I speak,

Becomes mine, its distortions, its queernesses

All mine, mine alone.”

The poem implicitly addresses power imbalances by exposing the impact of societal expectations on women's lives. It invites readers to critically analyze and challenge the patriarchal structures that constrain women.

Role of Language:

“I amIndian, very brown, born inMalabar,

I speak three languages, write in

Two, dream in one.”

Kamala Das addresses the role of language in constructing social norms. Her defiance of language prescriptions underscores the power dynamics embedded in linguistic conventions and challenges the notion that English is a limiting factor for self-expression.

Marxist literary theory

Marxist literary theory, based on the ideas of Karl Marx, offers a unique perspective on how society and literature interact. According to this approach, the way societies produce and distribute goods, known as material production, plays a pivotal role in shaping human history, social structures, and ways of thinking. Essentially, economic factors are considered the driving force behind social change. One of the central tenets of Marxism is the concept of class struggle. It posits that changes in economic structures lead to the emergence of dominant and subordinate classes, sparking struggles for power, resources, and social standing. This dynamic is seen as a constant force shaping societies throughout history.

Ideology, encompassing beliefs, values, and thought processes, is another key element in Marxist theory. Human consciousness, according to Marxists, is significantly influenced by ideology. Importantly, the dominant ideology in a given era tends to align with the interests of the ruling class, serving to legitimize and perpetuate their dominance.

Marxism introduces the metaphor of a superstructure built upon an economic base to explain the relationship between economic structures and cultural, ideological, and social phenomena. The economic base, representing the means of production, influences and shapes the superstructure, which includes elements like ideology, culture, and institutions. In capitalist societies, Marxist critics focus on the bourgeoisie, the owning class, and argue that the prevailing ideology often supports their interests. This ideology, according to Marxists, functions to mask the true nature of societal arrangements, presenting them in a way that benefits the ruling class.

When applied to literature, Marxist criticism looks at literary works as products of their historical and economic context. Instead of considering them as timeless or universally artistic, Marxists analyze literature as influenced by specific economic and ideological conditions of the time. Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony is integral to Marxist literary theory. Hegemony involves the ruling class exerting influence not just through force but by making their worldview so pervasive that the subordinate classes unwittingly accept it, contributing to their own oppression.

The Marxist literary theory seeks to uncover the economic and ideological forces shaping both society and literature. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of material conditions and cultural expressions, providing a lens through which literature is viewed as both a reflection and a product of the socio-economic context in which it is created.

Beginnings and Basics of Marxism:

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, founders of Marxism, originated from Germany. Marx, son of a lawyer, faced political exile, living in poverty in Britain. Engels, a German sociologist, worked in Manchester. Their economic theories, termed 'Communism,' advocate state ownership of industry. The Communist Manifesto (1848) introduced this ideology, aiming for a classless society with common ownership. Marxism, rooted in materialism, rejects assumptions beyond the natural world. History, viewed as a result of class struggle, emphasizes socio-economic contexts, especially in industrial capitalism, leading to exploitation and alienation. Influenced by Hegel, the French Revolution, and socialist thinking, Marxism posits a society with material means of production, distribution, and exchange under common ownership.

Marxist Literary Criticism - General:

Marxist literary criticism, although lacking a comprehensive theory from Marx and Engels, asserts that an author's social class and prevailing ideology significantly shape their work. While Marx and Engels valued 'great' art, Marxist criticism contends that writers, even unconsciously, are products of their social contexts. Eagleton highlights language's role in reflecting and constituting political states. Belsey argues that 'realist' novels validate existing social structures, discouraging critical scrutiny. Despite the autonomy of art, Marxist critics stress the impact of socio-economic factors on content and form.

'Leninist' Marxist Criticism:

In the 1920s, Soviet Marxist views on literature were initially experimental but turned strict in the 1930s. Lenin's stance, presented at the 1934 Soviet Writers' Congress, declared literature as a tool of the party, necessitating explicit political commitment. This 'Vulgar Marxism' assumed a direct cause-effect link between literature and economics. Christopher Caudwell's work exemplifies this rigid criticism, correlating an author's vocabulary with their social class and economic stance.

'Engelsian' Marxist Criticism:

'Engelsian' Marxist criticism, thriving in exile or underground, embraced ideas from the Russian Formalists. Formalists stressed close formal analysis, defamiliarization, and a distinction between story and plot. Exiles like Jakobson influenced structuralism, with attention to the autonomy of literary language. The Frankfurt School, integrating Freud and Marx, featured figures like Walter Benjamin and Bertolt Brecht, opposing Socialist Realism. Brecht's 'alienation effect' aimed to highlight the constructed nature of literary images.

The Present: The Influence of Althusser:

Louis Althusser's influence since the 1970s brought nuanced terms like overdeterminism, relative autonomy, ideology, and decentering. Overdeterminism rejects a simplistic base/superstructure model. Relative autonomy suggests art's independence from economic forces. Ideology, a central concept, sees culture, including literature, as a vehicle for societal values. Decentering rejects an overall unity between base and superstructure. Althusser's views highlight how state power operates through repressive and ideological structures. Hegemony, as per Gramsci, emphasizes the internalized social control maintained by ideological structures. Interpellation explains how individuals perceive themselves as free agents, contributing to the maintenance of societal norms.

Application of Marxist Criticism to Contemporary Indian Movie: "Article 15" (2019) 

Division between 'overt' and 'covert' content:

Overt Content: The film revolves around a young police officer investigating a heinous crime in rural India. It explicitly addresses issues of caste-based discrimination and social injustice.

Covert Content: A Marxist analysis might delve into the hidden structures of power and economic disparities that sustain the caste system. The crime investigated could be seen as a metaphor for the systemic exploitation of the lower castes.

Relating the context to the filmmaker's social-class status:

Considering Anubhav Sinha's background: The director, Anubhav Sinha, belongs to the film industry but doesn't come from the upper echelons of society. Marxist critics could explore how Sinha's social standing influences the film's perspective on caste dynamics and whether there are subtle biases or awareness present in the narrative.

Explaining the nature of a film genre in terms of the social period:

Analyzing the rise of socially relevant cinema: Marxist critics may argue that films like "Article 15" signify a shift in Bollywood towards addressing societal issues. The film genre could be seen as a response to the changing socio-political climate, with increased awareness and activism regarding caste discrimination.

Relating the film to the social assumptions of the time of consumption:

Considering the contemporary Indian audience: Cultural materialists might examine how "Article 15" engages with the prevailing discourse on caste and social justice during its release. If the film resonates with the audience's heightened sensitivity to these issues, it becomes a cultural product contributing to the ongoing discussions on inequality.

"Article 15," through a Marxist lens, could be interpreted as a cinematic critique of the entrenched caste system in India. The overt themes of discrimination and injustice could represent a deeper, covert narrative about the economic structures that perpetuate social hierarchies. Anubhav Sinha's background might bring a unique perspective to the film, influencing its portrayal of power dynamics. The film genre, in this case, serves as a medium to bring pressing social issues to the forefront, aligning with the changing consciousness of the audience and contributing to the larger discourse on social reform.